When a coral bleaches, it is not dead. When corals are impacted by these environmental stressors, they expel the microscopic symbiotic algae zooxanthellae from their tissues. We show that coral bleaching was more prevalent in localities with high SST, both in absolute degrees and in DHW, and in localities with frequently high SST anomalies. Veron, J., Stafford-Smith, M., DeVantier, L. & Turak, E. Overview of distribution patterns of zooxanthellate Scleractinia. In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles Bleaching events can be good anchor phenomena, and the lessons and data tools in the module can help students carry out meaningful data driven investigations. Also, check out the two videos below! What was the difference between the conditionsin the two tanks? The authors declare no competing interests. Further research should untangle this spatial heterogeneity in SST variance and determine to what extent acclimation versus adaptation is contributing to reduced coral bleaching prevalence. and R.vW. And by doing that, we gain much more insight into how the chemistry and the molecules work, he added. Diversity is the number of species confirmed present in the ecoregion in which each survey was conducted. There was also a categorized estimate of the percentage of each coral colony that was bleached (i.e., per colony bleaching) at each site during each sampling period. Algae, like plants, use the suns energy to make food. Bull. We can see it with our eyes, and we also clearly see the progression of climate change in our data. MVS Oceanography 6.2 - Coral Reef Watch Exploration Go to the Coral Reef Watch interactive map:. The lab opened in the ASU Biodesign C building in the fall of 2018, and since that time, deputy director and research scientist Mark Holl has spearheaded the design, engineering and construction of the complex equipment inside the lab. Glob. Mar. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the articles Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. We cover this in the next key insight. Coral bleaching was most common in localities experiencing high intensity and high frequency thermal-stress anomalies. Coral reefs are home to many species of animals fish, sharks, sea turtles, and anemones all use corals for habitat! Degree Heating Weeks (DHW) has become a standard global predictor of bleaching15, with 1 DHW defined as 1C above the long-term climatology for the warmest month at a given locality. Climate change has been causing the Earths air and oceans to get warmer. In many parts of the world, it isnt only a question of beauty, but a question of survival, Donovan said. Using these cleaner transportation methods can help reduce the amount of greenhouse gasses that are emitted into the atmosphere. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds Stocker, et al.) Global assessment of coral bleaching and required rates of adaptation under climate change. Costanza, R. et al. Significantly more coral bleaching occurred at mid-tropical latitude sites, between 15 and 20 north and south of the Equator than in the equatorial regions, where coral diversity is highest (Fig. Hostsymbiont recombination versus natural selection in the response of coraldinoflagellate symbioses to environmental disturbance. The validity of Reef Check data has been well documented32. Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Yet, both satellite data and local field studies show that not all coral reefs are equally exposed to severe temperature stress events10. What is this process called? This change in coral-bleaching temperature is significantly different (Likelihood ratio test, Pr(>2)=0.001) between decades (Fig. A single experiment can cost several hundreds of thousands of dollars to run. The leading cause of coral bleaching is climate change. Tim R. McClanahan, Emily S. Darling, Julien Leblond, Aryan Safaie, Nyssa J. Silbiger, Kristen A. Davis, J. M. Lough, K. D. Anderson & T. P. Hughes, Pedro R. Frade, Pim Bongaerts, Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, Terry P. Hughes, James T. Kerry, Gergely Torda, Robert van Woesik, Semen Kksal, Carly J. Randall, Nature Communications This is the document you will be submitting via Managebac, Student Report Data Nugget: Coral Bleaching. 1603 Orrington Avenue Graves says this step will be a technology to create a nanopattern for the electrons, which would put them into a precise arrangement. 2nd Floor Carly wondered whether inshore corals are better able to work with their algae in warm water because they have adapted to these temperatures. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); Enter your name and email if you would like to receive updates on Data Nuggets! Donovan is now applying this research to local efforts to address conditions that harm reefs. Through the lessons in this module, designed for grades 6-12, students are guided through the use of NOAA data (sea surface temperature and SST anomalies, coral bleaching hotspots, and degree heating weeks) to understand how scientists monitor coral bleaching events in order to determine what is happening to the health of coral reefs in the 0000004254 00000 n Corals are vulnerable to bleaching when the SST exceeds 1.0C. Veron19 (Supplementary Figure21 & Supplementary Table1), the dataset includes counts of the number of coral colonies showing bleaching (i.e., the percent of reef corals that were recorded as bleached), which was classified as site-wide bleaching. A coral reef is like an underwater city. At the thousands of sites surveyed, the mean SST recorded during coral bleaching in the first decade of the dataset, from 1998 to 2006, was 28.1C, whereas the mean SST recorded during coral bleaching in the second decade, from 2007 to 2017, was 28.7C. Semiconductor quality control and research. & Cohen, A. L. Projecting coral reef futures under global warming and ocean acidification. Plummer, M. Package rjags: Bayesian graphical models using MCMC. ADS Warmer water temperatures can result in coral bleaching. She cut each coral in half and put half of each coral into tanks with normal water and the other half into tanks with heaters. Actividad para estudiantes, Tipo de grfica A, Actividad para estudiantes, Tipo de grfica B, Actividad para estudiantes, Tipo de grfica C, Gene expression under chronic heat stress in populations of the mustard hill coral (Porites astreoides) from different thermal environments, Evidence for a host role in thermotolerance divergence between populations of the mustard hill coral (Porites astreoides) from different reef environments, Steve Palumbi & Megan Morikawa Study Coral Reef Damage in American Samoa, Kenkel CD, G Goodbody-Gringley, D Caillaud, SW Davies, E Bartels, MV Matz (2013). After six weeks, she recorded the number of corals that bleached in each tank. Global warming and recurrent mass bleaching of corals. With warmer oceans, coral bleaching is becoming more widespread. Carly wondered whether inshore corals are better able to work with their algae in warm water because they have adapted to these temperatures. Science 318, 17371742 (2007). 3). Coral reefs and the services they provide are seriously threatened by ocean acidification and climate change impacts like coral bleaching. Algae take energy from the sun in order to make Glucose and Oxygen from Water and Carbon dioxide. If so, inshore corals and algae should bleach less often than offshore corals and algae. There they genetically characterize corals and their symbiont algae and, in collaboration with Chicagos Shedd Aquarium, expose different corals to thermal stress to better understand mechanisms of differential bleaching. Which is warmer, inshore water or offshore water? The steepest falls came after mass bleaching events in 2016 and 2017. Proc. The index ranks the corals susceptibility to thermal stress from 1 to 100, with the most susceptible first in the list. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. module. One-hundred and fifty-three sites (4%) were removed that had missing data for the environmental variables or fell outside of ecoregion boundaries. Article Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification. These emissions contribute to ocean acidification and increased ocean temperature. Why does coral bleaching matter? Student Report Data Nugget: Coral Bleaching If possible, print the report so you have it handy to answer these questions. We used the global Coral Reef Temperature Anomaly Database (CoRTAD Version 6) from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (www.nodc.noaa.gov/sog/cortad/) to predict coral bleaching prevalence and intensity across reefs worldwide. McClanahan, T. R., Ateweberhan, M., Muhando, C. A., Maina, J. Module 1: Section 1 Global Climate Change 2 Module 1: Basics of Coral Reefs and Climate Change Section 1: Global Climate Change Learning Objectives By the end of this module you will have: An update on current scientific knowledge on climate change Corals on one part of a reef were bleaching while corals on another part of the reef stayed healthy. 0000003659 00000 n Northwestern recognized for internationalization amid high demand for global education, Hes helping young musicians bridge the gap between art and business, Trethewey named to the Academy of American Poets, How the second-longest US government shutdown is affecting the economy, Learning to write like a president sounds, Longest global coral bleaching event ever recorded is happening now, Rich with life, coral reefs are rain forests of the sea, Huge historicaldata sets used to understand mass bleaching of reefs, Livelihoods of 500 million people rely on healthy coral reefs, Index provides valuable new tool to conservationists and park managers. pp. One of the greatest biological disturbances to coral reefs is an outbreak of crown-of-thorns sea stars. Perhaps corals and algae from inshore reefs have adapted to warm water. Climate change has been causing the Earths air and oceans to get warmer. 1. One event in 1998 alone killed 8% of the world's coral, according to the global . Nat Commun 10, 1264 (2019). These electrons are accelerated to nearly the speed of light by a 1-meter-long linear accelerator and strong microwave-frequency electromagnetic fields with megawatt peak power. All the R code, Reef Check data, and diversity data for the analysis are available at the GitHub repository for the Institute for Global Ecology https://github.com/InstituteForGlobalEcology/Coral-bleaching-a-global-analysis-of-the-past-two-decades. A Bayesian P-value based on the mean was ill-suited for the zero-inflated model, therefore we examined the fit to the mean for only non-zero bleaching values, and obtained a P-value of 0.503. 0000003416 00000 n Featured Data Nugget: The world's coral reefs are home to a large diversity of plants and animals, and are threatened by climate change. She brought them into an aquarium lab for research. A team of scientists at Arizona State Universitys Biodesign Institute has successfully achieved a milestone five years in the making generating the first electrons from their highly innovativecompact X-ray program.The achievement is a major operational step as the ASU scientists race to complete the project's first phase, called a compact X-ray light source (CXLS).This is a kind of eur A team of scientists at Arizona State Universitys Biodesign Institute has successfully achieved a milestone five years in the making generating the first electrons from their highly innovativecompact X-ray program. For access, try logging in If you are subscribed to this group and have noticed abuse, report abusive group. 0000001710 00000 n Biol. Institute for Global Ecology, Florida Institute of Technology, 150 West University Blvd., Melbourne, FL, 32901, USA, Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA, Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA, Reef Check Foundation 13723 Fiji Way, B-2 Marina del Rey, CA, 90292, USA, You can also search for this author in 16, 151154 (1995). Our model showed that rates of change in SST are strong predictors of coral bleaching with faster rates of change correlating with higher levels of bleaching (Fig. Answer to 1. We may contact you in the future for information on your experience with Data Nuggets. Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter what matters in science, free to your inbox daily. In 2019, the National Science Foundation announced its support of the next-stage CXFEL project with a $4.7 million grant to fund a comprehensive design study of the new device. Even where they are, corals show local and regional variation and species-specific responses to thermal stress11,12,13,14. The widespread decline is fueled in part by climate-driven heat waves that are warming the worlds oceans and leading to whats known as coral bleaching, the breakdown of the mutually beneficial relationship between corals and resident algae. 2). For example, in biology, the CXLS acts like an ultrafast camera to see proteins and other building blocks of biology dynamically at work, analogous to how the very first X-rays yielded new views of our bodies. Mar. Risk-sensitive planning for conserving coral reefs under rapid climate change. Algae, like plants, use the suns energy to make food. Some corals rebound, but many do not. Our finding of less coral bleaching in equatorial regions, where coral diversity is the highest on a global scale, contrasts with other studies at the regional scale, which showed that the most extensive bleaching occurred at the most diverse reefs in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands17. As the summer advances in the northern hemisphere, will the coral reefs around the U.S. and its territories experience similar heat stress and bleaching? The results that coral bleaching was less common in the equatorial regions, with high coral diversity19, agree with paleoecological studies that show greatest stability and lowest extinction in the tropics through rapid climate change20. startxref Reaching up to a half meter in diameter, a crown-of-thorns sea star is the largest tropical sea star and its favorite prey is corals. 1 and Supplementary Figs. More acidic ocean waters impede coral growth and warmer waters cause coral bleaching. Once fully operational, the CXLS will make ultrashort pulses of X-rays to probe into the secrets of biology, medicine and advanced materials. Read each paragraph and then answer the questions pertaining to that paragraph in your own words. Proc. R. van Woesik. Glob. Download Full Image. (Princeton University Press, New Jersey, USA, 2015). Overfishing depletes the number of fish that eat algae and keep the reefs ecosystem in balance. What other variables do you think Carly had to. But while conventional X-ray sources have been limited to taking static pictures, recent developments provide access to natures rapid dynamics. Coral bleaching: the winners and the losers. Compared with coarse-grained global models that predict minimal coral survival in the tropical oceans within the next 100 years, recent field work shows considerable geographic variability in both temperature stress and coral survival11,12,13,14. Journal peer review information: Nature Communications thanks John Bruno, Janice Lough, and the other anonymous reviewers for their contribution to the peer review of this work. Ecosystems 6, 551563 (2003). The clustering of coral bleaching at 1520 north and south of the Equatorwas not, however, a consequence of higher thermal anomalies at those latitudes than elsewhere (Supplementary Figs. Carly designed an experiment to test this. With warmer oceans, coral bleaching is becoming more widespread. Zuur, A. F., & Leno, E. N. Beginners guide to zero-inflated models with R. pp 414. Perhaps corals and algae from inshore reefs have adapted to warm water. volume10, Articlenumber:1264 (2019) Google Scholar. We also examined the prevalence of coral bleaching per coral ecoregion (as defined by Veron et al. http://www.R-project.org (2007). The 20142017 global coral-bleaching event, the third in the last 20 years, killed corals and other reef organisms over thousands of square kilometers8,10. The research team plans to make the index available online, so that data on corals can be added as it becomes available and make the tool even more robust. Freq is frequency. Huston-Tillotson University. Coral reefs are the worlds most diverse marine ecosystems. Meanwhile, nutrient pollution from land, including runoff from golf courses, agriculture and urban development along coastlines, greatly threatens reefs. The warm water tanks were at 31C, which is a temperature that inshore corals experience, but offshore corals have never previously experienced. A severe disease - tentatively named stony coral tissue loss disease - is rapidly killing corals in the U.S. Virgin Islands. We would also like to thank Sandra van Woesik and the three reviewers for comments and suggestions that improved the manuscript, and the National Science Foundation (OCE 1657633 and OCE 1829393) and the Zegar Family Foundation for supporting our research. Coral reefs are home to many species of animals fish, sharks, sea turtles, and anemones all use corals for habitat! Depth is the depth in meters. Each of the five modules addresses research questions, includes stepped levels of engagement and builds students' abilities to understand, interpret, and think critically about data. Remote Sens. The global index is a standardized measure of vulnerability, by species of coral, to thermal stress. Coral reefs take up some of the smallest area on our planet but harbor the most species of any ecosystem on Earth, and theyre also incredibly important to people. Emissions: Carbon Dioxide released from Food Chain: A representation of the interactions between predators and prey in an ecosystem. This mismatch between global models and field results underscores the urgent need to develop better models that accurately predict the geographical heterogeneity of coral bleaching as corals respond to ocean warming. Covariates were modeled with flat normal priors. A global analysis of coral bleaching over the past two decades, $$o_i\sim {\mathrm{negative}}\,{\mathrm{binomial}}\,\left( {p_i,\,k} \right),$$, $${\mathrm{Expected}}\,\left( {o_i} \right) = p_i,$$, $${\mathrm{Variance}}\,\left( {o_i} \right) = p_i + p_i^2/k,$$, $${\mathrm{log}}\left( {p_i} \right) = b_0 + \gamma _1\left( {\left( {{\mathrm{covariate}}_{{\mathrm{i}},1}-{\mathrm{mean}}\,{\mathrm{covariate}}_1} \right)/{\mathrm{sigma}}\,{\mathrm{covariate}}_1} \right) \\ \,\,\,\,\,\, + \ldots \,\gamma _nx_{i,n} + a_{i,s},$$, $$a_s\sim {\mathrm{norm}}\left( {R_r,\,\tau } \right),$$, $$R_r\sim {\mathrm{norm}}\,(g_r,{\rm T}),$$, $$g_r = \mu + b_{{\mathrm{div}}}d_{\mathrm{r}},$$, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09238-2. After six weeks, she recorded the number of corals that bleached in each tank. Changes in the global value of ecosystem services. To obtain Recently, condensed-matter and laser scientist Robert Kaindl was brought in as the first director of the CXFEL Science Program and an ASU faculty member in the Department of Physics. Answer - Question 1: Water near the shore and on either side of the equator Part 2: Reading Sea Surface Temperature Maps Before students can start using data to understand coral bleaching events, they need to learn how to read sea surface temperature (SST) maps. When combined, all of these impacts dramatically alter ecosystem function, as well as the goods and services coral reef . CAS Model parameter coefficients. Hughes, T. P. et al. About 100 researchers and students from ASU and other institutions are involved in these efforts, with both the design work and the construction of CXLS continuing at a rapid pace despite the ongoing COVID pandemic. 1 and 2). 0000003736 00000 n Slider with three articles shown per slide. ADS However, coral bleaching was significantly less common in localities with a high variance in sea-surface temperature (SST) anomalies. stephen.filmer@asu.edu, Coral reef in the Florida Keys. 0000006207 00000 n Hughes, T. P. et al. With warmer oceans, coral bleaching is becoming more widespread. Sheppard, C. R. C. Predicted recurrences of mass coral mortality in the Indian Ocean. One day, Carly observed an interesting pattern. <<6B3CBBE2167C354CA93E6B9A4C809801>]>> Climate change has been causing the Earth's air and oceans to get warmer. More mass bleaching . As designed, the work of the device starts with packets of electrons generated by focusing extremely short ultraviolet laser pulses onto a copper surface. The change in coral-bleaching-sea-surfacetemperature is significantly different (Likelihood ratio test, Pr(>2)=0.001) between decades. Yet, coral reefs are profoundly important. McClanahan, T. R. & Maina, J. The coral bleaching data were composed of the Reef Check dataset (reefcheck.org), collected by a mixture of professional scientists (56%) and trained and certified citizen-scientists (44%) using a standardized transect protocol31. Cite this article. Your information will never be shared or sold to a 3rd party. If the water stays too warm, bleached corals will die without their algae mutualists. Red dots show a positive contribution to bleaching likelihood, blue dots show a negative contribution to the likelihood of coral bleaching, and white dots show no significant contribution to bleaching likelihood (95% credible interval crosses 0). Perhaps corals and algae from inshore reefs have adapted to warm water. 2 & Supplementary Figs. Colors are largely due to different varieties of algae living symbiotically within reef corals, and other types of algae that help bind the reef framework together. To be included in this analysis, an ecoregion was required to have hadat least 10 surveys over the 1998 to 2017 sampling period. This process is called ocean acidification. Together, these studies show that the relationship between anomalously high SSTs and coral bleaching varies over space and time. When the water gets too warm, the algae can no longer live inside corals, so they leave. Publishers note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Google Scholar. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. Seeing molecules in action is often the first step in finding new biological targets for drug discovery. Monogr. Coral reefs are important on a fundamental level for biodiversity, said Donovan, who is also a member of ASUsCenter for Global Discovery and Conservation Science. Since 1970, then, the size of animal populations for which data is available have declined by 69%, on average. Version 46. To spatially examine the environmental variables that potentially impact coral bleaching, we determined the mean value of each variable whose credible intervals did not cross zero (Fig. Using very large data sets, we have teased out valuable information that will help researchers identify global trends and learn about individual corals, said co-author Backman, the Walter Dill Scott Professor of Biomedical Engineering. We also note that coral bleaching was negatively related to the standard deviation of thermal stress events (Fig. Study Resources. Carly is a scientist who wanted to study coral bleaching so she could help protect corals and coral reefs. Based on a massive amount of historical data, the index can be used to compare the bleaching responses of corals throughout the world and to predict which corals may be most affected by future bleaching events. Data Nuggets aim to improve students' quantitative literacy and attitudes about science. In a Data Nugget activity, students are guided through the entire process of science, including identifying hypotheses and predictions, visualizing and interpreting data, supporting claims using data as evidence, and asking their own questions for future research. We also thank Chelsey Kratochwill for tireless assistance with the database. Explore the online modules and educator resources below. Thermal-stress events associated with climate change cause coral bleaching and mortality that threatens coral reefs globally. 2. The achievement is a major operational step as the ASU scientists race to complete the project's first phase, called a compact X-ray light source (CXLS). pp 1535 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2013). Climate change has been causing. When the water gets too warm, the algae can no longer live inside corals, so they leave. Pollut. Mar. The resulting electron beam is blasted by an intense optical laser, which imparts an undulating motion on the electrons resulting in strong and predictable X-ray emission. 11, e12587 (2018). Marcelino and Swain also are scientific affiliates with Chicagos Field Museum of Natural History. Coles, S. L. et al. Currently there are only about a handful of X-ray free-electron lasers around the world, because they are based on mile-long particle accelerators with associated billion-dollar construction costs. 276, 28932901 (2009). Thank you for visiting nature.com. Mutalism occurs when two organisms coexist and each provides a benefit to the other. Once generated, the X-rays can then be used to reveal the atomic structures and functions of biomolecules and novel materials. We found a strong signal that local conditions influenced outcomes for corals after heat-stress events, saidMary Donovan, lead author of the study and assistant professor in theSchool of Geographical Sciences and Urban Planningat Arizona State University. Please email Liz (eschultheis@gmail.com) or Melissa (kjelvikm@gmail.com) if you have any questions or feedback on Data Nuggets. 1. Stuart-Smith, R. D., Brown, C. J., Ceccarelli, D. M. & Edgar, G. J. Ecosystem restructuring along the Great Barrier Reef following mass coral bleaching. Module 1: Section 1 Global Climate Change 2 Module 1: Basics of Coral Reefs and Climate Change Section 1: Global Climate Change Learning Objectives By the end of this module you will have: An update on current scientific knowledge on climate change 0000019427 00000 n Get more out of your subscription* . In late December 2021, satellite data analyses by NOAA's Coral Reef Watch program detected a significant build-up of heat in the waters surrounding the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. How were the two tanks different. (2016). What other variables do you think Carly had to control(keep the same?). Hoegh-Guldberg, O. Biol. initiated project and secured funding; R.vW. A healthy coral (left) and a coral that has experienced bleaching (right). Souter notes that bleaching is caused by rising sea surface temperatures - a major result of climate change. Colored circles indicate 1% bleaching (blue) through 100% bleaching (yellow). Geographically, the highest probability of coral bleaching occurred at tropical mid-latitude sites (1520 degrees north and south of the Equator), despite similar thermal stress levels at equatorial sites. Spatial and temporal patterns of mass bleaching of corals in the Anthropocene. Here we synthesize field observations of coral bleaching at 3351 sites in 81 countries from 1998 to 2017 and use a suite of environmental covariates and temperature metrics to analyze bleaching patterns. Thank you! The increase in over half a degree celsius in coral-bleaching temperature suggests that past bleaching events may have culled the thermally susceptible individuals, resulting in a recent adjustment of the remaining coral populations to higher thresholds of bleaching temperatures26,27,28 (Supplementary Figure19). Safaie, A. et al. As of June 2021, some of the coral ecosystems in these regions are just starting to feel the heat, so to speak, as ocean temperatures begin to rise above normal. Evanston, IL 60201. Carly is a scientist who wanted to study coral bleaching so she could help protect corals and coral reefs. In late December 2021, satellite data analyses by NOAAs Coral Reef Watch program detected a significant build-up of heat in the waters surrounding the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. The corals then turn from green to white, called coral bleaching. Why did Carly believe that inshore corals would bleach lessin warm water? White circles indicate no bleaching. et al. Ecol. Science 333, 418422 (2011). If material is not included in the articles Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Frieler, K. et al. Furthermore, recent studies show that marine taxa track climate velocity21, which is the rate and direction that the climate shifts across the seascape. Penn, J. L., Deutsch, C., Payne, J. L. & Sperling, E. A. Temperature-dependent hypoxia explains biogeography and severity of end-Permian marine mass extinction. The milestone for CXLS also represents a significant technical leap forward to ushering in the next phase of the ASU project, a future planned compact X-ray free electron laser (CXFEL).
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